Employee Rights Law Firm Pittsburgh

Employee Rights Law Firm Pittsburgh

Collective bargaining agreements

With their support, you're not just a victim; you're a champion for justice, taking a stand against workplace discrimination with the best in your corner. Learn more about Employee Rights Law Firm Pittsburgh here Their expertise spans a wide range of issues, from wrongful termination and discrimination to wage disputes and contract negotiations. With Lacy Employment Law Firm by your side, you're not just getting legal representation; you're partnering with advocates who are committed to fighting for your rights and achieving the best possible outcome. Whether it's sponsoring local events, offering free legal clinics, or engaging in volunteer work, the firm's commitment to community service is evident.
We're proud to be your choice and promise to continue serving you with the same level of excellence that's earned us our reputation. You'll find their trophy case isn't just about decoration; it's a testament to their hard work, dedication, and the trust they've built with their clients. With our expertise, we're not just your lawyers; we're your allies, ensuring your voice is heard and your rights are upheld.

Sexual orientation discrimination

  1. Workplace discrimination policies
  2. Employment arbitration lawyer
  3. Workplace investigation services
  4. Wage and hour attorney
  5. Employment law audits
  6. Age discrimination lawyer
  7. Severance negotiation services
  8. Employment discrimination attorney
  9. Small business employment law
  10. Employment law attorney
  11. Workplace discrimination policies
  12. Employment arbitration lawyer
  13. Workplace investigation services
  14. Wage and hour attorney
  15. Employment law audits
  16. Age discrimination lawyer
  17. Severance negotiation services
  18. Employment discrimination attorney
  19. Small business employment law
  20. Employment law attorney

That's where their dedication to justice makes a tangible difference. With Lacy Employment Law Firm by your side, you're equipped with the expertise needed to secure the justice you deserve. They also prioritize clear communication, breaking down legal jargon into understandable language.
They've learned from past cases which strategies are most likely to lead to a favorable settlement or court decision.

HR outsourcing legal services

  • Collective bargaining agreements
  • Sexual orientation discrimination
  • Employee rights lawyer
  • HR outsourcing legal services
  • Employee rights advocate
  • Employer legal representation
  • Contract negotiation lawyer
  • Employment legal consulting
  • Dispute resolution lawyer
  • Workplace violence prevention
  • Gender discrimination attorney
  • Employment compliance audit
  • Equal pay attorney
  • Employment contracts
  • Minimum wage disputes
  • Harassment training for employers
  • Small business employment law
If you find yourself in this situation, it's vital to seek experienced legal counsel to assess your case and guide you through your next steps. By doing so, we safeguard not only your current position but also your overall career trajectory. Read more about The Lacy Employment Law Firm, LLC here.

The Lacy Employment Law Firm in Employee Rights Law Firm Pittsburgh, known for its expertise in employment disputes, can offer you the guidance and representation you need. Additionally, The Lacy Employment Law Firm's website offers a contact form. It's clear that under Andrew Lacy Jr.'s leadership, they've become a beacon of hope for employees facing legal challenges in Employee Rights Law Firm Pittsburgh and beyond. You deserve the best representation, and these awards are a clear indicator that you're in capable hands.

Employee rights lawyer

  • Dispute resolution lawyer
  • Workplace violence prevention
  • Gender discrimination attorney
  • Employment compliance audit
  • Equal pay attorney
  • Employment contracts
  • Minimum wage disputes
  • Harassment training for employers
  • Small business employment law
  • Employment law attorney
  • Workplace discrimination policies
  • Employment arbitration lawyer
  • Workplace investigation services
  • Wage and hour attorney
  • Employment law audits
  • Age discrimination lawyer
  • Severance negotiation services


Lacy Employment Law Firm has earned a spot among Employee Rights Law Firm Pittsburgh's top legal practices, a testament to its excellence and commitment to client service. They understand that every employment dispute is unique, with its own set of circumstances and nuances. Building on our unmatched expertise in employment law, we're equally passionate about championing workers' rights, ensuring you're treated fairly and with respect in your workplace.

Whether you're battling unpaid overtime, minimum wage violations, or illegal deductions, they've got your back. Choosing the Lacy Employment Law Firm means you're not just getting legal representation; you're gaining advocates who are deeply invested in your success. These endorsements not only underscore their expertise in employment law but also their dedication to fighting for workers' rights.

We frequently engage in local community initiatives, believing that real change starts with active involvement. This proactive approach ensures that your case is handled with the most current strategies, giving you a competitive edge. For those who are more comfortable with online interactions, there's an option to fill out a contact form on their website.

Dispute resolution lawyer

  1. Small business employment law
  2. Employment law attorney
  3. Workplace discrimination policies
  4. Employment arbitration lawyer
  5. Workplace investigation services
  6. Wage and hour attorney
  7. Employment law audits
  8. Age discrimination lawyer
  9. Severance negotiation services
  10. Employment discrimination attorney
  11. Workplace violence prevention
  12. Gender discrimination attorney
  13. Employment compliance audit
  14. Equal pay attorney
  15. Employment contracts
  16. Minimum wage disputes
  17. Harassment training for employers


Wage And Hour Lawyer Pittsburgh

Pittsburgh's rich industrial history left the area with renowned cultural institutions, including the Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh Parks Conservancy, Pittsburgh Zoo & Aquarium, Phipps Conservatory and Botanical Gardens, the National Aviary, and a diverse cultural district.[16] The city's major league professional sports teams include the Pittsburgh Steelers, Pittsburgh Penguins, and Pittsburgh Pirates. Pittsburgh is additionally where Jehovah's Witnesses traces its earliest origins, and was the host of the 2009 G20 Pittsburgh summit.

Employment Contract Lawyer Pittsburgh

Nearby Tourist Attractions

The Color Park

South Side Flats
Tourist attraction, Park
The Color Park, 1 S 6th St, Pittsburgh, PA 15203

Carnegie Science Center

Chateau
Tourist attraction, Museum, Planetarium, Science museum
Carnegie Science Center, 1 Allegheny Ave, Pittsburgh, PA 15212
Museum & research center offers science-related exhibits, a planetarium, live shows & kids programs.

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Hill District
Tourist attraction, Historical place, Plaza, Memorial park
Freedom Corner, Crawford St, Pittsburgh, PA 15219

National Aviary

Allegheny Center
Tourist attraction, Event venue, Non-profit organization, Zoo
National Aviary, 700 Arch St, Pittsburgh, PA 15212
Bird zoo with 500+ birds from 150+ species offers interactive encounters, feedings & party packages.

August Wilson Park

Hill District
Tourist attraction, Park
August Wilson Park, 1803 Cliff St, Pittsburgh, PA 15219

Point of View

Duquesne Heights
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Point of View, 1435 Grandview Ave, Pittsburgh, PA 15211
Popular hillside park featuring a George Washington bronze sculpture & panoramic views of the city.

Emerald View Park

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Emerald View Park, Bailey Ave, Pittsburgh, PA 15211
Hilltop 257-acre park on a former coal mining area with trails, woodland & play & picnic areas.


Citations and other links

Employee Grievance Attorney Employee Rights Law Firm Pittsburgh

You're not just another case to us. The gratitude expressed in these testimonials underscores the firm's reputation as one of the best in Employee Rights Law Firm Pittsburgh. Employee rights advocate Discrimination, whether based on race, gender, age, disability, or sexual orientation, undermines your professional and personal dignity. If you ever feel these rights are being violated, it's important to speak up.

His expertise isn't confined to traditional employment issues. Like Anna, you deserve a champion who fights relentlessly for your rights. Moreover, they're always on top of the latest legal developments, ensuring their approach is both current and effective. Minimum wage disputes

You'll find that their trophy case includes prestigious awards from both local and national legal organizations. They don't just stand up for you in legal battles; they ensure you understand every step of the process. Moreover, their track record speaks volumes.

Your fight for justice is our fight. Our efforts haven't just stopped at individual cases; they've sparked broader conversations about employee rights and workplace standards in our community. It's evidence like this that can strengthen your case, showing the real reasons behind your termination.

Employee Grievance Attorney Employee Rights Law Firm Pittsburgh
Labor And Employment Lawyer Employee Rights Law Firm Pittsburgh

Labor And Employment Lawyer Employee Rights Law Firm Pittsburgh

Your experience and the challenges you face in your workplace are unique to you. Equal pay attorney They're not just keeping pace; they're setting the pace, adapting to new laws and evolving workplace norms with ease. With a deep expertise in employment law, they've crafted personalized legal strategies that have not only faced but overcome some of the most challenging legal battles. This commitment ensures that everyone, regardless of their financial situation, has access to justice and fair treatment at work.

Employment compliance audit

  • Workplace investigation services
  • Wage and hour attorney
  • Employment law audits
  • Age discrimination lawyer
  • Severance negotiation services
  • Employment discrimination attorney
  • Equal pay attorney
  • Employment contracts
  • Minimum wage disputes
  • Harassment training for employers
  • Small business employment law
  • Employment law attorney
  • Workplace discrimination policies
  • Employment arbitration lawyer
  • Workplace investigation services
  • Wage and hour attorney
  • Employment law audits
  • Age discrimination lawyer


Lacy Jr. doesn't stop at envisioning a fairer world; he's actively building it. There's also the right to a workplace free from discrimination, whether it's based on race, gender, age, religion, or disability.

Employer legal representation

  • Workplace discrimination policies
  • Employment arbitration lawyer
  • Workplace investigation services
  • Wage and hour attorney
  • Employment law audits
  • Age discrimination lawyer
  • Severance negotiation services
  • Employment discrimination attorney
  • Dispute resolution lawyer
  • Workplace violence prevention
  • Gender discrimination attorney
  • Employment compliance audit
  • Equal pay attorney
  • Employment contracts
  • Minimum wage disputes
  • Harassment training for employers
They believe in giving back, and it's this belief that cements their reputation not just as superb legal professionals but as genuine community advocates.

You're not just getting a lawyer; you're getting a dedicated champion for your rights.

Contract negotiation lawyer

  1. Minimum wage disputes
  2. Harassment training for employers
  3. Small business employment law
  4. Employment law attorney
  5. Workplace discrimination policies
  6. Employment arbitration lawyer
  7. Workplace investigation services
  8. Wage and hour attorney
  9. Employment law audits
  10. Age discrimination lawyer
  11. Severance negotiation services
  12. Employment discrimination attorney
  13. Minimum wage disputes
  14. Harassment training for employers
  15. Small business employment law
  16. Employment law attorney
  17. Workplace discrimination policies
  18. Employment arbitration lawyer
You'll find our depth of knowledge not only impressive but essential in navigating the often-challenging landscape of employment litigation. Our firm's legal expertise is clearly reflected in the glowing testimonials from clients who've experienced firsthand our commitment to their success. Employer legal representation

When resolving a wage dispute, it's crucial to adopt a strategic approach that effectively addresses your concerns and secures the compensation you're entitled to. They're passionately committed to fighting for your rights, whether you're facing discrimination, wrongful termination, or harassment at work. A settlement that didn't just compensate for lost wages but also sent a clear message about workplace equality.

Employee Rights Law Firm Pittsburgh Employment Rights Advocate

From the initial consultation to the final verdict or settlement, the Lacy Employment Law Firm tailors its approach to meet your unique needs. You're looking for results, and that's what the Lacy Employment Law Firm delivers. Imagine you're navigating the complexities of employment law, feeling overwhelmed and unsure where to turn. This breadth of experience means they're well-equipped to handle the complexities of your case, no matter the sector you're in. This client-centric approach is woven into every facet of their operations. Small business employment law

They're investing time to understand your individual goals and the challenges you're facing. At Lacy Employment Law Firm, we understand that your career is often at the heart of who you are, shaping not just your present but your future opportunities as well. How does The Lacy Employment Law Firm set itself apart in the competitive field of employment law? They've shown that their expertise isn't just for the benefit of their clients, but for the betterment of the community as a whole.

You'll also find robust support for wage and hour claims. We're actively involved in shaping a more just and equitable work environment for everyone in Employee Rights Law Firm Pittsburgh. Whether you're facing discrimination, harassment, wrongful termination, or any other employment dispute, we're here to provide the personalized legal assistance you need to navigate these challenging times. Stick around to uncover the secrets behind their success and how they're not just participating in the legal arena but actively redefining it.

As you navigate the intricacies of their approach, from tailored legal strategies to comprehensive support systems, you'll find yourself wondering how they consistently outperform their peers and what drives their relentless pursuit of justice. Navigating the complex waters of employment law can be as daunting as sailing through a stormy sea, but you're not without a compass when you have The Lacy Employment Law Firm by your side. They know that facing employment issues can feel overwhelming, and that's why they've dedicated themselves to a client-centered approach. They don't just offer legal advice; they provide a strategy tailored to your unique situation.

Employee rights advocate

  1. Employment law attorney
  2. Workplace discrimination policies
  3. Employment arbitration lawyer
  4. Workplace investigation services
  5. Wage and hour attorney
  6. Employment law audits
  7. Age discrimination lawyer
  8. Severance negotiation services
  9. Employment discrimination attorney
  10. Employee rights lawyer
  11. HR outsourcing legal services
  12. Employee rights advocate
  13. Employer legal representation
  14. Contract negotiation lawyer
  15. Employment legal consulting




Sexual orientation discrimination

  1. Small business employment law
  2. Employment law attorney
  3. Workplace discrimination policies
  4. Employment arbitration lawyer
  5. Workplace investigation services
  6. Wage and hour attorney
  7. Employment law audits
  8. Age discrimination lawyer
  9. Severance negotiation services
  10. Employment discrimination attorney
  11. Employment compliance audit
  12. Equal pay attorney
  13. Employment contracts
  14. Minimum wage disputes
  15. Harassment training for employers
  16. Small business employment law
  17. Employment law attorney
  18. Workplace discrimination policies
  19. Employment arbitration lawyer
Employee Rights Law Firm Pittsburgh Employment Rights Advocate
Workplace Fairness Lawyer Employee Rights Law Firm Pittsburgh
Workplace Fairness Lawyer Employee Rights Law Firm Pittsburgh

It's this commitment to individualized attention that has earned them accolades as one of the best employment law firms in Employee Rights Law Firm Pittsburgh. That's what you'll find here.

HR outsourcing legal services

  1. Employment discrimination attorney
  2. Employee rights advocate
  3. Employer legal representation
  4. Contract negotiation lawyer
  5. Employment legal consulting
  6. Dispute resolution lawyer
  7. Workplace violence prevention
  8. Gender discrimination attorney
  9. Employment compliance audit
  10. Equal pay attorney
  11. Employment contracts
  12. Minimum wage disputes
  13. Harassment training for employers
  14. Small business employment law
  15. Employment law attorney
  16. Workplace discrimination policies
  17. Employment arbitration lawyer
  18. Workplace investigation services
It's easier than you think. Their attorneys don't just see you as another case; they recognize the personal and professional stakes involved and work tirelessly to achieve the best possible outcome for you. We'll walk you through every step of the legal process, demystifying complex legal jargon and procedures so you're fully informed and comfortable with the course of action.
As you look for legal representation, knowing you're in award-winning hands offers peace of mind. Moreover, they're always accessible. When you read through the feedback, you'll notice a recurring theme: our team's unwavering dedication to fighting for employee rights. They've been in the trenches, fighting for employees' rights in both negotiation rooms and courtrooms.
Amid plans for expansion and innovation, the Lacy Employment Law Firm sets its sights on joining the ranks of elite legal practices recognized for their unwavering commitment to workers' rights. Trust us to navigate the complexities of employment law on your behalf, always with your best interest at heart. Read more about Employee Rights Law Firm Pittsburgh here Understanding your rights and the complexities of employment law starts with a comprehensive consultation process at The Lacy Employment Law Firm. Under his leadership, the firm has tackled some of the most challenging employment law cases, earning a reputation for not shying away from tough battles.
Whether it's negotiating settlements or litigating in court, they're committed to getting the best outcomes for their clients. The Lacy Employment Law Firm doesn't shy away from tough cases. Plus, we stay abreast of the latest legal developments to ensure our strategies are as cutting-edge as they're effective. That's why they don't offer cookie-cutter solutions.

Employment Lawsuit Lawyer Employee Rights Law Firm Pittsburgh

You've seen them go to bat for employees facing discrimination, harassment, and wrongful termination, achieving results that not only benefit their clients but also set precedents for future cases. They're not just resting on their laurels but are geared up for continued growth, advocacy, and success in the fight for fairness in the workplace. The firm not only won a significant compensation for the client but also ensured that the company implemented new policies to support disabled employees better. You're probably wondering, 'How do I even start?' First, document everything. You've likely heard the buzz about their recent accolades, positioning them among the top employment law firms in the city.
With a storied history of battling against workplace injustices, their journey from a fledgling office to a powerhouse of legal expertise is nothing short of inspirational. Contract negotiation lawyer Their approach isn't about merely going through the motions; it's about championing your cause with unwavering commitment. They understand the impact of employment issues on your life and livelihood, and they treat your case with the seriousness it deserves. You can trust that we're always up to date with the latest legal developments and strategies to strengthen your case.
They understand that for you, it's more than just a legal battle-it's a fight for your reputation, your career, and your future. Moreover, we're not just reactive; we're proactive. Whether it's through mentoring young professionals or participating in local clean-ups, their dedication to community service shines brightly. Lacy Law's reputation for integrity and excellence in Employee Rights Law Firm Pittsburgh is no accident; it's the result of relentless dedication to their clients' success and well-being.
You've likely faced workplace injustices or know someone who has. Lastly, consider mediation as a viable option before heading to court. Workplace violence prevention They understand that earning a fair wage isn't just about numbers on a paycheck; it's about respect, dignity, and justice in the workplace. Gathering evidence is crucial.

Learn more about Employee Rights Law Firm Pittsburgh here
Employment Lawsuit Lawyer Employee Rights Law Firm Pittsburgh

Employment is a relationship between two parties regulating the provision of paid labour services. Usually based on a contract, one party, the employer, which might be a corporation, a not-for-profit organization, a co-operative, or any other entity, pays the other, the employee, in return for carrying out assigned work.[1] Employees work in return for wages, which can be paid on the basis of an hourly rate, by piecework or an annual salary, depending on the type of work an employee does, the prevailing conditions of the sector and the bargaining power between the parties. Employees in some sectors may receive gratuities, bonus payments or stock options. In some types of employment, employees may receive benefits in addition to payment. Benefits may include health insurance, housing, and disability insurance. Employment is typically governed by employment laws, organization or legal contracts.

Employees and employers

[edit]

An employee contributes labour and expertise to an endeavor of an employer or of a person conducting a business or undertaking (PCB)[2] and is usually hired to perform specific duties which are packaged into a job. In a corporate context, an employee is a person who is hired to provide services to a company on a regular basis in exchange for compensation and who does not provide these services as part of an independent business.[3]

Independent contractor

[edit]

An issue that arises in most companies, especially the ones that are in the gig economy, is the classification of workers. A lot of workers that fulfill gigs are often hired as independent contractors.

To categorize a worker as an independent contractor rather than an employee, an independent contractor must agree with the client on what the finished work product will be and then the contractor controls the means and manner of achieving the desired outcome. Secondly, an independent contractor offers services to the public at large, not just to one business, and is responsible for disbursing payments from the client, paying unreimbursed expenses, and providing his or her own tools to complete the job. Third, the relationship of the parties is often evidenced by a written agreement that specifies that the worker is an independent contractor and is not entitled to employee benefits; the services provided by the worker are not key to the business; and the relationship is not permanent.[4]

As a general principle of employment law, in the United States, there is a difference between an agent and an independent contractor. The default status of a worker is an employee unless specific guidelines are met, which can be determined by the ABC test.[5][6] Thus, clarifying whether someone who performs work is an independent contractor or an employee from the beginning, and treating them accordingly, can save a company from trouble later on.

Provided key circumstances, including ones such as that the worker is paid regularly, follows set hours of work, is supplied with tools from the employer, is closely monitored by the employer, acting on behalf of the employer, only works for one employer at a time, they are considered an employee,[7] and the employer will generally be liable for their actions and be obliged to give them benefits.[8] Similarly, the employer is the owner of any invention created by an employee "hired to invent", even in the absence of an assignment of inventions. In contrast, a company commissioning a work by an independent contractor will not own the copyright unless the company secures either a written contract stating that it is a "work made for hire" or a written assignment of the copyright. In order to stay protected and avoid lawsuits, an employer has to be aware of that distinction.[4]

Employer–worker relationship

[edit]

Employer and managerial control within an organization rests at many levels and has important implications for staff and productivity alike, with control forming the fundamental link between desired outcomes and actual processes. Employers must balance interests such as decreasing wage constraints with a maximization of labor productivity in order to achieve a profitable and productive employment relationship.

Labor acquisition / hiring

[edit]

The main ways for employers to find workers and for people to find employers are via jobs listings in newspapers (via classified advertising) and online, also called job boards. Employers and job seekers also often find each other via professional recruitment consultants which receive a commission from the employer to find, screen and select suitable candidates. However, a study has shown that such consultants may not be reliable when they fail to use established principles in selecting employees.[1] A more traditional approach is with a "Help Wanted" sign in the establishment (usually hung on a window or door[9] or placed on a store counter).[3] Evaluating different employees can be quite laborious but setting up different techniques to analyze their skills to measure their talents within the field can be best through assessments. Employer and potential employee commonly take the additional step of getting to know each other through the process of a job interview.

Training and development

[edit]
Wiki-training with employees of Regional Institute of Culture in Katowice 02

Training and development refers to the employer's effort to equip a newly hired employee with the necessary skills to perform at the job, and to help the employee grow within the organization. An appropriate level of training and development helps to improve employee's job satisfaction.[10]

Remuneration

[edit]

There are many ways that employees are paid, including by hourly wages, by piecework, by yearly salary, or by gratuities (with the latter often being combined with another form of payment). In sales jobs and real estate positions, the employee may be paid a commission, a percentage of the value of the goods or services that they have sold. In some fields and professions (e.g., executive jobs), employees may be eligible for a bonus if they meet certain targets. Some executives and employees may be paid in shares or stock options, a compensation approach that has the added benefit, from the company's point of view, of helping to align the interests of the compensated individual with the performance of the company.

Under the faithless servant doctrine, a doctrine under the laws of a number of states in the United States, and most notably New York State law, an employee who acts unfaithfully towards his employer must forfeit all of the compensation he received during the period of his disloyalty.[11][12][13][14][15]

Employee benefits

[edit]

Employee benefits are various non-wage compensation provided to employees in addition to their wages or salaries. The benefits can include: housing (employer-provided or employer-paid), group insurance (health, dental, life etc.), disability income protection, retirement benefits, daycare, tuition reimbursement, sick leave, vacation (paid and non-paid), social security, profit sharing, funding of education, and other specialized benefits. In some cases, such as with workers employed in remote or isolated regions, the benefits may include meals. Employee benefits can improve the relationship between employee and employer and lowers staff turnover.[16]

Organizational justice

[edit]

Organizational justice is an employee's perception and judgement of employer's treatment in the context of fairness or justice. The resulting actions to influence the employee-employer relationship is also a part of organizational justice.[16]

Workforce organizing

[edit]

Employees can organize into trade or labor unions, which represent the workforce to collectively bargain with the management of organizations about working, and contractual conditions and services.[17]

Ending employment

[edit]

Usually, either an employee or employer may end the relationship at any time, often subject to a certain notice period. This is referred to as at-will employment. The contract between the two parties specifies the responsibilities of each when ending the relationship and may include requirements such as notice periods, severance pay, and security measures.[17] A contract forbidding an employee from leaving their employment, under penalty of a surety bond, is referred to as an employment bond. In some professions, notably teaching, civil servants, university professors, and some orchestra jobs, some employees may have tenure, which means that they cannot be dismissed at will. Another type of termination is a layoff.

Wage labor

[edit]
Worker assembling rebar for a water treatment plant in Mazatlan, Sinaloa, Mexico

Wage labor is the socioeconomic relationship between a worker and an employer, where the worker sells their labor under a formal or informal employment contract. These transactions usually occur in a labor market where wages are market-determined.[10][16] In exchange for the wages paid, the work product generally becomes the undifferentiated property of the employer, except for special cases such as the vesting of intellectual property patents in the United States where patent rights are usually vested in the original personal inventor. A wage laborer is a person whose primary means of income is from the selling of his or her labor in this way.[17]

In modern mixed economies such as that of the OECD countries, it is currently the dominant form of work arrangement. Although most work occurs following this structure, the wage work arrangements of CEOs, professional employees, and professional contract workers are sometimes conflated with class assignments, so that "wage labor" is considered to apply only to unskilled, semi-skilled or manual labor.[18]

Wage slavery

[edit]

Wage labor, as institutionalized under today's market economic systems, has been criticized,[17] especially by socialists,[18][19][20][21] using the pejorative term wage slavery.[22][23] Socialists draw parallels between the trade of labor as a commodity and slavery. Cicero is also known to have suggested such parallels.[24]

The American philosopher John Dewey posited that until "industrial feudalism" is replaced by "industrial democracy", politics will be "the shadow cast on society by big business".[25] Thomas Ferguson has postulated in his investment theory of party competition that the undemocratic nature of economic institutions under capitalism causes elections to become occasions when blocs of investors coalesce and compete to control the state plus cities.[26]

American business theorist Jeffrey Pfeffer posits that contemporary employment practices and employer commonalities in the United States, including toxic working environments, job insecurity, long hours and increased performance pressure from management, are responsible for 120,000 excess deaths annually, making the workplace the fifth leading cause of death in the United States.[27][28]

Employment contract

[edit]

Australia

[edit]

Australian employment has been governed by the Fair Work Act since 2009.[29]

Bangladesh

[edit]

Bangladesh Association of International Recruiting Agencies (BAIRA) is an association of national level with its international reputation of co-operation and welfare of the migrant workforce as well as its approximately 1200 members agencies in collaboration with and support from the Government of Bangladesh.[18]

Canada

[edit]

In the Canadian province of Ontario, formal complaints can be brought to the Ministry of Labour. In the province of Quebec, grievances can be filed with the Commission des normes du travail.[21]

Germany

[edit]

Two of the prominent examples of work and employment contracts in Germany are the Werksvertrag[30][31] or the Arbeitsvertrag,[32][33][34][35] which is a form of Dienstleistungsvertrag (service-oriented contract). An Arbeitsvertrag can also be temporary,[36] whereas a temporary worker is working under Zeitarbeit[37] or Leiharbeit.[38] Another employment setting is Arbeitnehmerüberlassung (ANÜ).[39][40][41]

India

[edit]

India has options for a fixed term contract or a permanent contract. Both contracts are entitled to minimum wages, fixed working hours and social security contributions.[21]

Pakistan

[edit]

Pakistan has no contract Labor, Minimum Wage and Provident Funds Acts. Contract labor in Pakistan must be paid minimum wage and certain facilities are to be provided to labor. However, the Acts are not yet fully implemented.[18]

Philippines

[edit]

In the Philippines, employment is regulated by the Department of Labor and Employment.[42]

Sweden

[edit]

According to Swedish law,[43] there are three types of employment.

  • Test employment (Swedish: Provanställning), where the employer hires a person for a test period of 6 months maximum. The employment can be ended at any time without giving any reason. This type of employment can be offered only once per employer and in employee combination. Usually, a time limited or normal employment is offered after a test employment.[44]
  • Time limited employment (Swedish: Tidsbegränsad anställning). The employer hires a person for a specified time. Usually, they are extended for a new period. Total maximum two years per employer and employee combination, then it automatically counts as a normal employment.
  • Normal employment (Swedish: Tillsvidareanställning / Fast anställning), which has no time limit (except for retirement etc.). It can still be ended for two reasons: personal reason, immediate end of employment only for strong reasons such as crime, or lack of work tasks (Swedish: Arbetsbrist), cancellation of employment, usually because of bad income for the company. There is a cancellation period of 1–6 months, and rules for how to select employees, basically those with shortest employment time shall be cancelled first.[44]

There are no laws about minimum salary in Sweden. Instead, there are agreements between employer organizations and trade unions about minimum salaries, and other employment conditions.

There is a type of employment contract which is common but not regulated in law, and that is Hour employment (Swedish: Timanställning), which can be Normal employment (unlimited), but the work time is unregulated and decided per immediate need basis. The employee is expected to be answering the phone and come to work when needed, e.g. when someone is ill and absent from work. They will receive salary only for actual work time and can in reality be fired for no reason by not being called anymore. This type of contract is common in the public sector.[44]

United Kingdom

[edit]
A call centre worker confined to a small workstation/booth

In the United Kingdom, employment contracts are categorized by the government into the following types:[45]

United States

[edit]
All employees, private industries, by branches

For purposes of U.S. federal income tax withholding, 26 U.S.C. § 3401(c) provides a definition for the term "employee" specific to chapter 24 of the Internal Revenue Code:

Government employment as % of total employment in EU

"For purposes of this chapter, the term "employee" includes an officer, employee, or elected official of the United States, a State, or any political subdivision thereof, or the District of Columbia, or any agency or instrumentality of any one or more of the foregoing. The term "employee" also includes an officer of a corporation."[46] This definition does not exclude all those who are commonly known as 'employees'. "Similarly, Latham's instruction which indicated that under 26 U.S.C. § 3401(c) the category of 'employee' does not include privately employed wage earners is a preposterous reading of the statute. It is obvious that within the context of both statutes the word 'includes' is a term of enlargement not of limitation, and the reference to certain entities or categories is not intended to exclude all others."[47]

Employees are often contrasted with independent contractors, especially when there is dispute as to the worker's entitlement to have matching taxes paid, workers compensation, and unemployment insurance benefits. However, in September 2009, the court case of Brown v. J. Kaz, Inc. ruled that independent contractors are regarded as employees for the purpose of discrimination laws if they work for the employer on a regular basis, and said employer directs the time, place, and manner of employment.[42]

In non-union work environments, in the United States, unjust termination complaints can be brought to the United States Department of Labor.[48]

Labor unions are legally recognized as representatives of workers in many industries in the United States. Their activity today centers on collective bargaining over wages, benefits, and working conditions for their membership, and on representing their members in disputes with management over violations of contract provisions. Larger unions also typically engage in lobbying activities and electioneering at the state and federal level.[42]

Most unions in America are aligned with one of two larger umbrella organizations: the AFL–CIO created in 1955, and the Change to Win Federation which split from the AFL–CIO in 2005. Both advocate policies and legislation on behalf of workers in the United States and Canada, and take an active role in politics. The AFL–CIO is especially concerned with global trade issues.[26]

[edit]

Younger age workers

[edit]
Youth employment rate in the US, i.e. the ratio of employed persons (15–24Y) in an economy to total labor force (15–24Y)[49]

Young workers are at higher risk for occupational injury and face certain occupational hazards at a higher rate; this is generally due to their employment in high-risk industries. For example, in the United States, young people are injured at work at twice the rate of their older counterparts.[50] These workers are also at higher risk for motor vehicle accidents at work, due to less work experience, a lower use of seat belts, and higher rates of distracted driving.[51][52] To mitigate this risk, those under the age of 17 are restricted from certain types of driving, including transporting people and goods under certain circumstances.[51]

High-risk industries for young workers include agriculture, restaurants, waste management, and mining.[50][51] In the United States, those under the age of 18 are restricted from certain jobs that are deemed dangerous under the Fair Labor Standards Act.[51]

Youth employment programs are most effective when they include both theoretical classroom training and hands-on training with work placements.[53]

In the conversation of employment among younger aged workers, youth unemployment has also been monitored. Youth unemployment rates tend to be higher than the adult rates in every country in the world.[54]

Older age workers

[edit]

Those older than the statutory defined retirement age may continue to work, either out of enjoyment or necessity. However, depending on the nature of the job, older workers may need to transition into less-physical forms of work to avoid injury. Working past retirement age also has positive effects, because it gives a sense of purpose and allows people to maintain social networks and activity levels.[55] Older workers are often found to be discriminated against by employers.[56]

Working poor

[edit]
A worker in Dhaka, Bangladesh

Employment is no guarantee of escaping poverty, the International Labour Organization (ILO) estimates that as many as 40% of workers are poor, not earning enough to keep their families above the $2 a day poverty line.[44] For instance, in India most of the chronically poor are wage earners in formal employment, because their jobs are insecure and low paid and offer no chance to accumulate wealth to avoid risks.[44] According to the UNRISD, increasing labor productivity appears to have a negative impact on job creation: in the 1960s, a 1% increase in output per worker was associated with a reduction in employment growth of 0.07%, by the first decade of this century the same productivity increase implies reduced employment growth by 0.54%.[44] Both increased employment opportunities and increased labor productivity (as long as it also translates into higher wages) are needed to tackle poverty. Increases in employment without increases in productivity leads to a rise in the number of "working poor", which is why some experts are now promoting the creation of "quality" and not "quantity" in labor market policies.[44] This approach does highlight how higher productivity has helped reduce poverty in East Asia, but the negative impact is beginning to show.[44] In Vietnam, for example, employment growth has slowed while productivity growth has continued.[44] Furthermore, productivity increases do not always lead to increased wages, as can be seen in the United States, where the gap between productivity and wages has been rising since the 1980s.[44] Oxfam and social scientist Mark Robert Rank have argued that the economy of the United States is failing to provide jobs that can adequately support families.[57][58] According to sociologist Matthew Desmond, the US "offers some of the lowest wages in the industrialized world," which has "swelled the ranks of the working poor, most of whom are thirty-five or older."[59]

Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute argue that there are differences across economic sectors in creating employment that reduces poverty.[44] 24 instances of growth were examined, in which 18 reduced poverty. This study showed that other sectors were just as important in reducing unemployment, such as manufacturing.[44] The services sector is most effective at translating productivity growth into employment growth. Agriculture provides a safety net for jobs and economic buffer when other sectors are struggling.[44]

Growth, employment and poverty[44]
  Number of
episodes
Rising
agricultural
employment
Rising
industrial
employment
Rising
services
employment
Growth episodes associated with falling poverty rates
18
6
10
15
Growth episodes associated with no fall in poverty rates
6
2
3
1

Models of the employment relationship

[edit]

Scholars conceptualize the employment relationship in various ways.[60] A key assumption is the extent to which the employment relationship necessarily includes conflicts of interests between employers and employees, and the form of such conflicts.[61] In economic theorizing, the labor market mediates all such conflicts such that employers and employees who enter into an employment relationship are assumed to find this arrangement in their own self-interest. In human resource management theorizing, employers and employees are assumed to have shared interests (or a unity of interests, hence the label “unitarism”). Any conflicts that exist are seen as a manifestation of poor human resource management policies or interpersonal clashes such as personality conflicts, both of which can and should be managed away. From the perspective of pluralist industrial relations, the employment relationship is characterized by a plurality of stakeholders with legitimate interests (hence the label “pluralism), and some conflicts of interests are seen as inherent in the employment relationship (e.g., wages v. profits). Lastly, the critical paradigm emphasizes antagonistic conflicts of interests between various groups (e.g., the competing capitalist and working classes in a Marxist framework) that are part of a deeper social conflict of unequal power relations. As a result, there are four common models of employment:[62]

  1. Mainstream economics: employment is seen as a mutually advantageous transaction in a free market between self-interested legal and economic equals
  2. Human resource management (unitarism): employment is a long-term partnership of employees and employers with common interests
  3. Pluralist industrial relations: employment is a bargained exchange between stakeholders with some common and some competing economic interests and unequal bargaining power due to imperfect labor markets[44]
  4. Critical industrial relations: employment is an unequal power relation between competing groups that is embedded in and inseparable from systemic inequalities throughout the socio-politico-economic system.

These models are important because they help reveal why individuals hold differing perspectives on human resource management policies, labor unions, and employment regulation.[63] For example, human resource management policies are seen as dictated by the market in the first view, as essential mechanisms for aligning the interests of employees and employers and thereby creating profitable companies in the second view, as insufficient for looking out for workers’ interests in the third view, and as manipulative managerial tools for shaping the ideology and structure of the workplace in the fourth view.[64]

Academic literature

[edit]

Literature on the employment impact of economic growth and on how growth is associated with employment at a macro, sector and industry level was aggregated in 2013.[65]

Researchers found evidence to suggest growth in manufacturing and services have good impact on employment. They found GDP growth on employment in agriculture to be limited, but that value-added growth had a relatively larger impact.[44] The impact on job creation by industries/economic activities as well as the extent of the body of evidence and the key studies. For extractives, they again found extensive evidence suggesting growth in the sector has limited impact on employment. In textiles, however, although evidence was low, studies suggest growth there positively contributed to job creation. In agri-business and food processing, they found impact growth to be positive.[65]

They found that most available literature focuses on OECD and middle-income countries somewhat, where economic growth impact has been shown to be positive on employment. The researchers didn't find sufficient evidence to conclude any impact of growth on employment in LDCs despite some pointing to the positive impact, others point to limitations. They recommended that complementary policies are necessary to ensure economic growth's positive impact on LDC employment. With trade, industry and investment, they only found limited evidence of positive impact on employment from industrial and investment policies and for others, while large bodies of evidence does exist, the exact impact remains contested.[65]

Researchers have also explored the relationship between employment and illicit activities. Using evidence from Africa, a research team found that a program for Liberian ex-fighters reduced work hours on illicit activities. The employment program also reduced interest in mercenary work in nearby wars. The study concludes that while the use of capital inputs or cash payments for peaceful work created a reduction in illicit activities, the impact of training alone is rather low.[66]

Globalization and employment relations

[edit]

The balance of economic efficiency and social equity is the ultimate debate in the field of employment relations.[67] By meeting the needs of the employer; generating profits to establish and maintain economic efficiency; whilst maintaining a balance with the employee and creating social equity that benefits the worker so that he/she can fund and enjoy healthy living; proves to be a continuous revolving issue in westernized societies.[67]

Globalization has affected these issues by creating certain economic factors that disallow or allow various employment issues. Economist Edward Lee (1996) studies the effects of globalization and summarizes the four major points of concern that affect employment relations:

  1. International competition, from the newly industrialized countries, will cause unemployment growth and increased wage disparity for unskilled workers in industrialized countries. Imports from low-wage countries exert pressure on the manufacturing sector in industrialized countries and foreign direct investment (FDI) is attracted away from the industrialized nations, towards low-waged countries.[67]
  2. Economic liberalization will result in unemployment and wage inequality in developing countries. This happens as job losses in uncompetitive industries outstrip job opportunities in new industries.
  3. Workers will be forced to accept worsening wages and conditions, as a global labor market results in a “race to the bottom”. Increased international competition creates a pressure to reduce the wages and conditions of workers.[67]
  4. Globalization reduces the autonomy of the nation state. Capital is increasingly mobile and the ability of the state to regulate economic activity is reduced.

What also results from Lee's (1996) findings is that in industrialized countries an average of almost 70 per cent of workers are employed in the service sector, most of which consists of non-tradable activities. As a result, workers are forced to become more skilled and develop sought after trades, or find other means of survival. Ultimately this is a result of changes and trends of employment, an evolving workforce, and globalization that is represented by a more skilled and increasing highly diverse labor force, that are growing in non standard forms of employment (Markey, R. et al. 2006).[67]

Alternatives

[edit]

Subcultures

[edit]

Various youth subcultures have been associated with not working, such as the hippie subculture in the 1960s and 1970s (which endorsed the idea of "dropping out" of society) and the punk subculture.

Post-secondary education

[edit]

One of the alternatives to work is engaging in post-secondary education at a college, university or professional school. One of the major costs of obtaining a post-secondary education is the opportunity cost of forgone wages due to not working. At times when jobs are hard to find, such as during recessions, unemployed individuals may decide to get post-secondary education, because there is less of an opportunity cost.

Social assistance

[edit]

In some countries, individuals who are not working can receive social assistance support (e.g., welfare or food stamps) to enable them to rent housing, buy food, repair or replace household goods, maintenance of children and observe social customs that require financial expenditure.

Volunteerism

[edit]

Workers who are not paid wages, such as volunteers who perform tasks for charities, hospitals or not-for-profit organizations, are generally not considered employed. One exception to this is an internship, an employment situation in which the worker receives training or experience (and possibly college credit) as the chief form of compensation.[68]

Indentured servitude and slavery

[edit]

Those who work under obligation for the purpose of fulfilling a debt, such as indentured servants, or as property of the person or entity they work for, such as slaves, do not receive pay for their services and are not considered employed. Some historians[which?] suggest that slavery is older than employment, but both arrangements have existed for all recorded history.[citation needed] Indentured servitude and slavery are not considered compatible with human rights or with democracy.[68]

Self-employment

[edit]
 

Self-employment is the state of working for oneself rather than an employer. Tax authorities will generally view a person as self-employed if the person chooses to be recognised as such or if the person is generating income for which a tax return needs to be filed. In the real world, the critical issue for tax authorities is not whether a person is engaged in business activity (called trading even when referring to the provision of a service) but whether the activity is profitable and therefore potentially taxable. In other words, the trading is likely to be ignored if there is no profit, so occasional and hobby- or enthusiast-based economic activity is generally ignored by tax authorities. Self-employed people are usually classified as a sole proprietor (or sole trader), independent contractor, or as a member of a partnership.

Self-employed people generally find their own work rather than being provided with work by an employer and instead earn income from a profession, a trade, or a business that they operate. In some countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, the authorities are placing more emphasis on clarifying whether an individual is self-employed or engaged in disguised employment, in other words pretending to be in a contractual intra-business relationship to hide what is in fact an employer-employee relationship.

Statistics

[edit]

See also

[edit]

Notes and references

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Dakin, Stephen; Armstrong, J. Scott (1989). "Predicting job performance: A comparison of expert opinion and research findings" (PDF). International Journal of Forecasting. 5 (2): 187–94. doi:10.1016/0169-2070(89)90086-1. S2CID 14567834.
  2. ^ Archer, Richard; Borthwick, Kerry; Travers, Michelle; Ruschena, Leo (2017). WHS: A Management Guide (4th ed.). Cengage Learning Australia. pp. 30–31. ISBN 978-0-17-027079-3. Retrieved 2016-03-30. The most significant definitions are 'person conducting a business or undertaking' (PCBU). 'worker' and 'workplace'. [...] 'PCBU' is a wider ranging term than 'employer', though this will be what most people understand by it.
  3. ^ a b Robert A. Ristau (2010). Intro to Business. Cengage Learning. p. 74. ISBN 978-0-538-74066-1.
  4. ^ a b Bagley, Constance E (2017). The entrepreneur's guide to law and strategy. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-285-42849-9. OCLC 953710378.
  5. ^ "ABC test". Legal Information Institute (LII). Retrieved 2022-10-06.
  6. ^ Dynamex Operations West, Inc. v. Superior Court, vol. 4, April 30, 2018, p. 903, retrieved March 30, 2020
  7. ^ "Overview of Independent Contractor Guidelines". Findlaw. Retrieved 2020-03-30.
  8. ^ "Employer Liability for Employee Conduct". Findlaw. Retrieved 2020-03-30.
  9. ^ J. Mayhew Wainwright (1910). Report to the Legislature of the State of New York by the Commission appointed under Chapter 518 of the laws of 1909 to inquire into the question of employers' liability and other matters (Report). J. B. Lyon Company. pp. 11, 50, 144.
  10. ^ a b Deakin, Simon; Wilkinson, Frank (2005). The Law of the Labour Market (PDF). Oxford University Press.
  11. ^ Glynn, Timothy P.; Arnow-Richman, Rachel S.; Sullivan, Charles A. (2019). Employment Law: Private Ordering and Its Limitations. Wolters Kluwer Law & Business. ISBN 978-1-5438-0106-4 – via Google Books.
  12. ^ Annual Institute on Employment Law. Vol. 2. Practising Law Institute. 2004 – via Google Books.
  13. ^ New York Jurisprudence 2d. Vol. 52. West Group. 2009 – via Google Books.
  14. ^ Labor Cases. Vol. 158. Commerce Clearing House. 2009 – via Google Books.
  15. ^ Ellie Kaufman (May 19, 2018). "Met Opera sues former conductor for $5.8 million over sexual misconduct allegations". CNN.
  16. ^ a b c Marx, Karl (1847). "Chapter 2". Wage Labour and Capital.
  17. ^ a b c d Ellerman 1992.
  18. ^ a b c d Ostergaard 1997, p. 133.
  19. ^ Thompson 1966, p. 599.
  20. ^ Thompson 1966, p. 912.
  21. ^ a b c Lazonick, William (1990). Competitive Advantage on the Shop Floor. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-674-15416-2.
  22. ^ "wage slave". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 4 March 2013.
  23. ^ "wage slave". Dictionary.com Unabridged (Online). n.d.
  24. ^ "...vulgar are the means of livelihood of all hired workmen whom we pay for mere manual labour, not for artistic skill; for in their case the very wage they receive is a pledge of their slavery." – De Officiis [1]
  25. ^ "As long as politics is the shadow cast on society by big business, the attenuation of the shadow will not change the substance", in "The Need for a New Party" (1931), Later Works 6, p163
  26. ^ a b Ferguson 1995.
  27. ^ Pfeffer, Jeffrey (2018). Dying for a Paycheck: How Modern Management Harms Employee Health and Company Performance – and What We Can Do About It. HarperBusiness. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-06-280092-3.
  28. ^ McGregor, Jena (March 22, 2018). "This professor says the workplace is the fifth leading cause of death in the U.S." The Washington Post. Retrieved June 7, 2023.
  29. ^ "House of Reps seals 'death' of WorkChoices". ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 2008-03-19. Retrieved 2014-02-15.
  30. ^ Gross, Willi; Söhnlein, Walter (1990), Gross, Willi; Söhnlein, Walter (eds.), "Werkvertrag", Bürgerliches Recht 3: Fall · Systematik · Lösung · Schuldrecht · Besonderer Teil. Kauf und Tausch · Schenkung · Miete und Pacht · Leihe · Verwahrung · Darlehen · Bürgschaft · Dienst- und Werkvertrag (in German), Wiesbaden: Gabler Verlag, pp. 127–135, doi:10.1007/978-3-322-99402-8_13, ISBN 978-3-322-99402-8, retrieved 2021-04-11
  31. ^ "§ 631 BGB – Einzelnorm". www.gesetze-im-internet.de. Retrieved 2021-04-11.
  32. ^ "Arbeitsrecht". Recht – Schnell Erfasst. 2006. doi:10.1007/3-540-32544-1. ISBN 3-540-32541-7.
  33. ^ Höhl, Rebekka (2017). "Kollegen anstellen: Was beim Arbeitsvertrag zu beachten ist!". Uro-News (in German). 21: 45. doi:10.1007/s00092-017-1358-0.
  34. ^ "§ 611a BGB – Einzelnorm". www.gesetze-im-internet.de. Retrieved 2021-04-11.
  35. ^ "Links zu Musterverträgen". IHK Frankfurt am Main (in German). Retrieved 2021-04-11.
  36. ^ "Arbeitsvertrag (Befristet)". IHK Frankfurt am Main (in German). Retrieved 2021-04-11.
  37. ^ "Zeitarbeit: Infos und Stellen | Bundesagentur für Arbeit". www.arbeitsagentur.de. Retrieved 2024-05-17.
  38. ^ "Zeitarbeit = Leiharbeit: häufige Fragen – Bundesagentur für Arbeit". www.arbeitsagentur.de. Retrieved 2021-04-11.
  39. ^ Auer, M.; Egglmeier-Schmolke, B. (2009-10-01). "Arbeitnehmerüberlassung aus Deutschland im Bereich des Baugewerbes". Baurechtliche Blätter (in German). 12 (5): 199. doi:10.1007/s00738-009-0718-x. ISSN 1613-7612. S2CID 176538819.
  40. ^ Stieglmeier, Jacqueline (2005), Hök, Götz-Sebastian (ed.), "Internationales Arbeitsrecht", Handbuch des internationalen und ausländischen Baurechts (in German), Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 361–368, doi:10.1007/3-540-27450-2_24, ISBN 978-3-540-27450-6, retrieved 2021-04-11
  41. ^ "AÜG – nichtamtliches Inhaltsverzeichnis". www.gesetze-im-internet.de. Retrieved 2021-04-11.
  42. ^ a b c d "Brown v. J. Kaz, Inc., No. 08-2713 (3d Cir. Sept. 11, 2009)". Archived from the original on 2012-03-23. Retrieved 2010-01-23.
  43. ^ Lag om anställningsskydd (1982:80)
  44. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Claire Melamed, Renate Hartwig and Ursula Grant 2011. Jobs, growth and poverty: what do we know, what don't we know, what should we know? Archived May 20, 2011, at the Wayback Machine London: Overseas Development Institute
  45. ^ "Contract types and employer responsibilities". gov.uk. Retrieved 21 May 2014.
  46. ^ 26 U.S.C. § 3401(c)
  47. ^ United States v. Latham, 754 F.2d 747, 750 (7th Cir. 1985).
  48. ^ "Termination". United States Department of Labor. Archived from the original on 27 September 2012. Retrieved 27 September 2012.
  49. ^ "Bluenomics". Archived from the original on 2014-11-17.
  50. ^ a b "Young Worker Safety and Health". www.cdc.gov. CDC NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic. Retrieved 2015-06-15.
  51. ^ a b c d "Work-Related Motor Vehicle Crashes" (PDF). NIOSH Publication 2013-153. NIOSH. September 2013.
  52. ^ "Work-Related Motor Vehicle Crashes: Preventing Injury to Young Drivers" (PDF). NIOSH Publication 2013-152. NIOSH. September 2013.
  53. ^ Joseph Holden, Youth employment programmes – What can be learnt from international experience with youth employment programmes? Economic and private sector professional evidence and applied knowledge services https://partnerplatform.org/?fza26891
  54. ^ Pastore, Francesco (2018-01-23). "Why is youth unemployment so high and different across countries?". IZA World of Labor. doi:10.15185/izawol.420.
  55. ^ Chosewood, L. Casey (May 3, 2011). "When It Comes to Work, How Old Is Too Old?". NIOSH: Workplace Safety and Health. Medscape and NIOSH.
  56. ^ Baert, Stijn (February 20, 2016). "Getting Grey Hairs in the Labour Market: An Alternative Experiment on Age Discrimination". Journal of Economic Psychology. 57: 86–101. doi:10.1016/j.joep.2016.10.002. hdl:10419/114164. S2CID 38265879.
  57. ^ Henderson, Kaitlyn (May 3, 2023). "Where hard work doesn't pay off: An index of US labor policies compared to peer nations". Oxfam. Retrieved February 18, 2024. The US is falling drastically behind similar countries in mandating adequate wages, protections, and rights for millions of workers and their families. The wealthiest country in the world is near the bottom of every dimension of this index.
  58. ^ Rank, Mark Robert (2023). The Poverty Paradox: Understanding Economic Hardship Amid American Prosperity. Oxford University Press. pp. 4, 121. ISBN 978-0190212636. The tendency of our free market economy has been to produce a growing number of jobs that will no longer support a family. In addition, the basic nature of capitalism ensures that unemployment exists at modest levels. Both of these directly result in a shortage of economic opportunities in American society. In addition, the absence of social supports stems from failings at the political and policy levels. The United States has traditionally lacked the political desire to put in place effective policies and programs that would support the economically vulnerable. Structural failing at the economic and political levels have therefore produced a lack of opportunities and supports, resulting in high rates of American poverty.
  59. ^ Desmond, Matthew (2023). Poverty, by America. Crown Publishing Group. p. 62. ISBN 9780593239919.
  60. ^ Kaufman, Bruce E. (2004) Theoretical Perspectives on Work and the Employment Relationship, Industrial Relations Research Association.
  61. ^ Fox, Alan (1974) Beyond Contract: Work, Power and Trust Relations, Farber and Farber.
  62. ^ Budd, John W. and Bhave, Devasheesh (2008) "Values, Ideologies, and Frames of Reference in Industrial Relations," in Sage Handbook of Industrial Relations, Sage.
  63. ^ Befort, Stephen F. and Budd, John W. (2009) Invisible Hands, Invisible Objectives: Bringing Workplace Law and Public Policy Into Focus, Stanford University Press.
  64. ^ Budd, John W. and Bhave, Devasheesh (2010) "The Employment Relationship," in Sage Handbook of Handbook of Human Resource Management, Sage.
  65. ^ a b c Yurendra Basnett and Ritwika Sen, What do empirical studies say about economic growth and job creation in developing countries? Economic and private sector professional evidence and applied knowledge services https://partnerplatform.org/?7ljwndv4
  66. ^ Blattman, Christopher; Annan, Jeannie (2016-02-01). "Can Employment Reduce Lawlessness and Rebellion? A Field Experiment with High-Risk Men in a Fragile State". American Political Science Review. 110 (1): 1–17. doi:10.1017/S0003055415000520. ISSN 0003-0554. S2CID 229170512.
  67. ^ a b c d e Budd, John W. (2004) Employment with a Human Face: Balancing Efficiency, Equity, and Voice, Cornell University Press.
  68. ^ a b Rayasam, Renuka (24 April 2008). "Why Workplace Democracy Can Be Good Business". U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved 16 August 2010.

General bibliography

[edit]
[edit]

 

Employment is a relationship between two parties regulating the provision of paid labour services. Usually based on a contract, one party, the employer, which might be a corporation, a not-for-profit organization, a co-operative, or any other entity, pays the other, the employee, in return for carrying out assigned work.[1] Employees work in return for wages, which can be paid on the basis of an hourly rate, by piecework or an annual salary, depending on the type of work an employee does, the prevailing conditions of the sector and the bargaining power between the parties. Employees in some sectors may receive gratuities, bonus payments or stock options. In some types of employment, employees may receive benefits in addition to payment. Benefits may include health insurance, housing, and disability insurance. Employment is typically governed by employment laws, organization or legal contracts.

Employees and employers

[edit]

An employee contributes labour and expertise to an endeavor of an employer or of a person conducting a business or undertaking (PCB)[2] and is usually hired to perform specific duties which are packaged into a job. In a corporate context, an employee is a person who is hired to provide services to a company on a regular basis in exchange for compensation and who does not provide these services as part of an independent business.[3]

Independent contractor

[edit]

An issue that arises in most companies, especially the ones that are in the gig economy, is the classification of workers. A lot of workers that fulfill gigs are often hired as independent contractors.

To categorize a worker as an independent contractor rather than an employee, an independent contractor must agree with the client on what the finished work product will be and then the contractor controls the means and manner of achieving the desired outcome. Secondly, an independent contractor offers services to the public at large, not just to one business, and is responsible for disbursing payments from the client, paying unreimbursed expenses, and providing his or her own tools to complete the job. Third, the relationship of the parties is often evidenced by a written agreement that specifies that the worker is an independent contractor and is not entitled to employee benefits; the services provided by the worker are not key to the business; and the relationship is not permanent.[4]

As a general principle of employment law, in the United States, there is a difference between an agent and an independent contractor. The default status of a worker is an employee unless specific guidelines are met, which can be determined by the ABC test.[5][6] Thus, clarifying whether someone who performs work is an independent contractor or an employee from the beginning, and treating them accordingly, can save a company from trouble later on.

Provided key circumstances, including ones such as that the worker is paid regularly, follows set hours of work, is supplied with tools from the employer, is closely monitored by the employer, acting on behalf of the employer, only works for one employer at a time, they are considered an employee,[7] and the employer will generally be liable for their actions and be obliged to give them benefits.[8] Similarly, the employer is the owner of any invention created by an employee "hired to invent", even in the absence of an assignment of inventions. In contrast, a company commissioning a work by an independent contractor will not own the copyright unless the company secures either a written contract stating that it is a "work made for hire" or a written assignment of the copyright. In order to stay protected and avoid lawsuits, an employer has to be aware of that distinction.[4]

Employer–worker relationship

[edit]

Employer and managerial control within an organization rests at many levels and has important implications for staff and productivity alike, with control forming the fundamental link between desired outcomes and actual processes. Employers must balance interests such as decreasing wage constraints with a maximization of labor productivity in order to achieve a profitable and productive employment relationship.

Labor acquisition / hiring

[edit]

The main ways for employers to find workers and for people to find employers are via jobs listings in newspapers (via classified advertising) and online, also called job boards. Employers and job seekers also often find each other via professional recruitment consultants which receive a commission from the employer to find, screen and select suitable candidates. However, a study has shown that such consultants may not be reliable when they fail to use established principles in selecting employees.[1] A more traditional approach is with a "Help Wanted" sign in the establishment (usually hung on a window or door[9] or placed on a store counter).[3] Evaluating different employees can be quite laborious but setting up different techniques to analyze their skills to measure their talents within the field can be best through assessments. Employer and potential employee commonly take the additional step of getting to know each other through the process of a job interview.

Training and development

[edit]
Wiki-training with employees of Regional Institute of Culture in Katowice 02

Training and development refers to the employer's effort to equip a newly hired employee with the necessary skills to perform at the job, and to help the employee grow within the organization. An appropriate level of training and development helps to improve employee's job satisfaction.[10]

Remuneration

[edit]

There are many ways that employees are paid, including by hourly wages, by piecework, by yearly salary, or by gratuities (with the latter often being combined with another form of payment). In sales jobs and real estate positions, the employee may be paid a commission, a percentage of the value of the goods or services that they have sold. In some fields and professions (e.g., executive jobs), employees may be eligible for a bonus if they meet certain targets. Some executives and employees may be paid in shares or stock options, a compensation approach that has the added benefit, from the company's point of view, of helping to align the interests of the compensated individual with the performance of the company.

Under the faithless servant doctrine, a doctrine under the laws of a number of states in the United States, and most notably New York State law, an employee who acts unfaithfully towards his employer must forfeit all of the compensation he received during the period of his disloyalty.[11][12][13][14][15]

Employee benefits

[edit]

Employee benefits are various non-wage compensation provided to employees in addition to their wages or salaries. The benefits can include: housing (employer-provided or employer-paid), group insurance (health, dental, life etc.), disability income protection, retirement benefits, daycare, tuition reimbursement, sick leave, vacation (paid and non-paid), social security, profit sharing, funding of education, and other specialized benefits. In some cases, such as with workers employed in remote or isolated regions, the benefits may include meals. Employee benefits can improve the relationship between employee and employer and lowers staff turnover.[16]

Organizational justice

[edit]

Organizational justice is an employee's perception and judgement of employer's treatment in the context of fairness or justice. The resulting actions to influence the employee-employer relationship is also a part of organizational justice.[16]

Workforce organizing

[edit]

Employees can organize into trade or labor unions, which represent the workforce to collectively bargain with the management of organizations about working, and contractual conditions and services.[17]

Ending employment

[edit]

Usually, either an employee or employer may end the relationship at any time, often subject to a certain notice period. This is referred to as at-will employment. The contract between the two parties specifies the responsibilities of each when ending the relationship and may include requirements such as notice periods, severance pay, and security measures.[17] A contract forbidding an employee from leaving their employment, under penalty of a surety bond, is referred to as an employment bond. In some professions, notably teaching, civil servants, university professors, and some orchestra jobs, some employees may have tenure, which means that they cannot be dismissed at will. Another type of termination is a layoff.

Wage labor

[edit]
Worker assembling rebar for a water treatment plant in Mazatlan, Sinaloa, Mexico

Wage labor is the socioeconomic relationship between a worker and an employer, where the worker sells their labor under a formal or informal employment contract. These transactions usually occur in a labor market where wages are market-determined.[10][16] In exchange for the wages paid, the work product generally becomes the undifferentiated property of the employer, except for special cases such as the vesting of intellectual property patents in the United States where patent rights are usually vested in the original personal inventor. A wage laborer is a person whose primary means of income is from the selling of his or her labor in this way.[17]

In modern mixed economies such as that of the OECD countries, it is currently the dominant form of work arrangement. Although most work occurs following this structure, the wage work arrangements of CEOs, professional employees, and professional contract workers are sometimes conflated with class assignments, so that "wage labor" is considered to apply only to unskilled, semi-skilled or manual labor.[18]

Wage slavery

[edit]

Wage labor, as institutionalized under today's market economic systems, has been criticized,[17] especially by socialists,[18][19][20][21] using the pejorative term wage slavery.[22][23] Socialists draw parallels between the trade of labor as a commodity and slavery. Cicero is also known to have suggested such parallels.[24]

The American philosopher John Dewey posited that until "industrial feudalism" is replaced by "industrial democracy", politics will be "the shadow cast on society by big business".[25] Thomas Ferguson has postulated in his investment theory of party competition that the undemocratic nature of economic institutions under capitalism causes elections to become occasions when blocs of investors coalesce and compete to control the state plus cities.[26]

American business theorist Jeffrey Pfeffer posits that contemporary employment practices and employer commonalities in the United States, including toxic working environments, job insecurity, long hours and increased performance pressure from management, are responsible for 120,000 excess deaths annually, making the workplace the fifth leading cause of death in the United States.[27][28]

Employment contract

[edit]

Australia

[edit]

Australian employment has been governed by the Fair Work Act since 2009.[29]

Bangladesh

[edit]

Bangladesh Association of International Recruiting Agencies (BAIRA) is an association of national level with its international reputation of co-operation and welfare of the migrant workforce as well as its approximately 1200 members agencies in collaboration with and support from the Government of Bangladesh.[18]

Canada

[edit]

In the Canadian province of Ontario, formal complaints can be brought to the Ministry of Labour. In the province of Quebec, grievances can be filed with the Commission des normes du travail.[21]

Germany

[edit]

Two of the prominent examples of work and employment contracts in Germany are the Werksvertrag[30][31] or the Arbeitsvertrag,[32][33][34][35] which is a form of Dienstleistungsvertrag (service-oriented contract). An Arbeitsvertrag can also be temporary,[36] whereas a temporary worker is working under Zeitarbeit[37] or Leiharbeit.[38] Another employment setting is Arbeitnehmerüberlassung (ANÜ).[39][40][41]

India

[edit]

India has options for a fixed term contract or a permanent contract. Both contracts are entitled to minimum wages, fixed working hours and social security contributions.[21]

Pakistan

[edit]

Pakistan has no contract Labor, Minimum Wage and Provident Funds Acts. Contract labor in Pakistan must be paid minimum wage and certain facilities are to be provided to labor. However, the Acts are not yet fully implemented.[18]

Philippines

[edit]

In the Philippines, employment is regulated by the Department of Labor and Employment.[42]

Sweden

[edit]

According to Swedish law,[43] there are three types of employment.

  • Test employment (Swedish: Provanställning), where the employer hires a person for a test period of 6 months maximum. The employment can be ended at any time without giving any reason. This type of employment can be offered only once per employer and in employee combination. Usually, a time limited or normal employment is offered after a test employment.[44]
  • Time limited employment (Swedish: Tidsbegränsad anställning). The employer hires a person for a specified time. Usually, they are extended for a new period. Total maximum two years per employer and employee combination, then it automatically counts as a normal employment.
  • Normal employment (Swedish: Tillsvidareanställning / Fast anställning), which has no time limit (except for retirement etc.). It can still be ended for two reasons: personal reason, immediate end of employment only for strong reasons such as crime, or lack of work tasks (Swedish: Arbetsbrist), cancellation of employment, usually because of bad income for the company. There is a cancellation period of 1–6 months, and rules for how to select employees, basically those with shortest employment time shall be cancelled first.[44]

There are no laws about minimum salary in Sweden. Instead, there are agreements between employer organizations and trade unions about minimum salaries, and other employment conditions.

There is a type of employment contract which is common but not regulated in law, and that is Hour employment (Swedish: Timanställning), which can be Normal employment (unlimited), but the work time is unregulated and decided per immediate need basis. The employee is expected to be answering the phone and come to work when needed, e.g. when someone is ill and absent from work. They will receive salary only for actual work time and can in reality be fired for no reason by not being called anymore. This type of contract is common in the public sector.[44]

United Kingdom

[edit]
A call centre worker confined to a small workstation/booth

In the United Kingdom, employment contracts are categorized by the government into the following types:[45]

United States

[edit]
All employees, private industries, by branches

For purposes of U.S. federal income tax withholding, 26 U.S.C. § 3401(c) provides a definition for the term "employee" specific to chapter 24 of the Internal Revenue Code:

Government employment as % of total employment in EU

"For purposes of this chapter, the term "employee" includes an officer, employee, or elected official of the United States, a State, or any political subdivision thereof, or the District of Columbia, or any agency or instrumentality of any one or more of the foregoing. The term "employee" also includes an officer of a corporation."[46] This definition does not exclude all those who are commonly known as 'employees'. "Similarly, Latham's instruction which indicated that under 26 U.S.C. § 3401(c) the category of 'employee' does not include privately employed wage earners is a preposterous reading of the statute. It is obvious that within the context of both statutes the word 'includes' is a term of enlargement not of limitation, and the reference to certain entities or categories is not intended to exclude all others."[47]

Employees are often contrasted with independent contractors, especially when there is dispute as to the worker's entitlement to have matching taxes paid, workers compensation, and unemployment insurance benefits. However, in September 2009, the court case of Brown v. J. Kaz, Inc. ruled that independent contractors are regarded as employees for the purpose of discrimination laws if they work for the employer on a regular basis, and said employer directs the time, place, and manner of employment.[42]

In non-union work environments, in the United States, unjust termination complaints can be brought to the United States Department of Labor.[48]

Labor unions are legally recognized as representatives of workers in many industries in the United States. Their activity today centers on collective bargaining over wages, benefits, and working conditions for their membership, and on representing their members in disputes with management over violations of contract provisions. Larger unions also typically engage in lobbying activities and electioneering at the state and federal level.[42]

Most unions in America are aligned with one of two larger umbrella organizations: the AFL–CIO created in 1955, and the Change to Win Federation which split from the AFL–CIO in 2005. Both advocate policies and legislation on behalf of workers in the United States and Canada, and take an active role in politics. The AFL–CIO is especially concerned with global trade issues.[26]

[edit]

Younger age workers

[edit]
Youth employment rate in the US, i.e. the ratio of employed persons (15–24Y) in an economy to total labor force (15–24Y)[49]

Young workers are at higher risk for occupational injury and face certain occupational hazards at a higher rate; this is generally due to their employment in high-risk industries. For example, in the United States, young people are injured at work at twice the rate of their older counterparts.[50] These workers are also at higher risk for motor vehicle accidents at work, due to less work experience, a lower use of seat belts, and higher rates of distracted driving.[51][52] To mitigate this risk, those under the age of 17 are restricted from certain types of driving, including transporting people and goods under certain circumstances.[51]

High-risk industries for young workers include agriculture, restaurants, waste management, and mining.[50][51] In the United States, those under the age of 18 are restricted from certain jobs that are deemed dangerous under the Fair Labor Standards Act.[51]

Youth employment programs are most effective when they include both theoretical classroom training and hands-on training with work placements.[53]

In the conversation of employment among younger aged workers, youth unemployment has also been monitored. Youth unemployment rates tend to be higher than the adult rates in every country in the world.[54]

Older age workers

[edit]

Those older than the statutory defined retirement age may continue to work, either out of enjoyment or necessity. However, depending on the nature of the job, older workers may need to transition into less-physical forms of work to avoid injury. Working past retirement age also has positive effects, because it gives a sense of purpose and allows people to maintain social networks and activity levels.[55] Older workers are often found to be discriminated against by employers.[56]

Working poor

[edit]
A worker in Dhaka, Bangladesh

Employment is no guarantee of escaping poverty, the International Labour Organization (ILO) estimates that as many as 40% of workers are poor, not earning enough to keep their families above the $2 a day poverty line.[44] For instance, in India most of the chronically poor are wage earners in formal employment, because their jobs are insecure and low paid and offer no chance to accumulate wealth to avoid risks.[44] According to the UNRISD, increasing labor productivity appears to have a negative impact on job creation: in the 1960s, a 1% increase in output per worker was associated with a reduction in employment growth of 0.07%, by the first decade of this century the same productivity increase implies reduced employment growth by 0.54%.[44] Both increased employment opportunities and increased labor productivity (as long as it also translates into higher wages) are needed to tackle poverty. Increases in employment without increases in productivity leads to a rise in the number of "working poor", which is why some experts are now promoting the creation of "quality" and not "quantity" in labor market policies.[44] This approach does highlight how higher productivity has helped reduce poverty in East Asia, but the negative impact is beginning to show.[44] In Vietnam, for example, employment growth has slowed while productivity growth has continued.[44] Furthermore, productivity increases do not always lead to increased wages, as can be seen in the United States, where the gap between productivity and wages has been rising since the 1980s.[44] Oxfam and social scientist Mark Robert Rank have argued that the economy of the United States is failing to provide jobs that can adequately support families.[57][58] According to sociologist Matthew Desmond, the US "offers some of the lowest wages in the industrialized world," which has "swelled the ranks of the working poor, most of whom are thirty-five or older."[59]

Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute argue that there are differences across economic sectors in creating employment that reduces poverty.[44] 24 instances of growth were examined, in which 18 reduced poverty. This study showed that other sectors were just as important in reducing unemployment, such as manufacturing.[44] The services sector is most effective at translating productivity growth into employment growth. Agriculture provides a safety net for jobs and economic buffer when other sectors are struggling.[44]

Growth, employment and poverty[44]
  Number of
episodes
Rising
agricultural
employment
Rising
industrial
employment
Rising
services
employment
Growth episodes associated with falling poverty rates
18
6
10
15
Growth episodes associated with no fall in poverty rates
6
2
3
1

Models of the employment relationship

[edit]

Scholars conceptualize the employment relationship in various ways.[60] A key assumption is the extent to which the employment relationship necessarily includes conflicts of interests between employers and employees, and the form of such conflicts.[61] In economic theorizing, the labor market mediates all such conflicts such that employers and employees who enter into an employment relationship are assumed to find this arrangement in their own self-interest. In human resource management theorizing, employers and employees are assumed to have shared interests (or a unity of interests, hence the label “unitarism”). Any conflicts that exist are seen as a manifestation of poor human resource management policies or interpersonal clashes such as personality conflicts, both of which can and should be managed away. From the perspective of pluralist industrial relations, the employment relationship is characterized by a plurality of stakeholders with legitimate interests (hence the label “pluralism), and some conflicts of interests are seen as inherent in the employment relationship (e.g., wages v. profits). Lastly, the critical paradigm emphasizes antagonistic conflicts of interests between various groups (e.g., the competing capitalist and working classes in a Marxist framework) that are part of a deeper social conflict of unequal power relations. As a result, there are four common models of employment:[62]

  1. Mainstream economics: employment is seen as a mutually advantageous transaction in a free market between self-interested legal and economic equals
  2. Human resource management (unitarism): employment is a long-term partnership of employees and employers with common interests
  3. Pluralist industrial relations: employment is a bargained exchange between stakeholders with some common and some competing economic interests and unequal bargaining power due to imperfect labor markets[44]
  4. Critical industrial relations: employment is an unequal power relation between competing groups that is embedded in and inseparable from systemic inequalities throughout the socio-politico-economic system.

These models are important because they help reveal why individuals hold differing perspectives on human resource management policies, labor unions, and employment regulation.[63] For example, human resource management policies are seen as dictated by the market in the first view, as essential mechanisms for aligning the interests of employees and employers and thereby creating profitable companies in the second view, as insufficient for looking out for workers’ interests in the third view, and as manipulative managerial tools for shaping the ideology and structure of the workplace in the fourth view.[64]

Academic literature

[edit]

Literature on the employment impact of economic growth and on how growth is associated with employment at a macro, sector and industry level was aggregated in 2013.[65]

Researchers found evidence to suggest growth in manufacturing and services have good impact on employment. They found GDP growth on employment in agriculture to be limited, but that value-added growth had a relatively larger impact.[44] The impact on job creation by industries/economic activities as well as the extent of the body of evidence and the key studies. For extractives, they again found extensive evidence suggesting growth in the sector has limited impact on employment. In textiles, however, although evidence was low, studies suggest growth there positively contributed to job creation. In agri-business and food processing, they found impact growth to be positive.[65]

They found that most available literature focuses on OECD and middle-income countries somewhat, where economic growth impact has been shown to be positive on employment. The researchers didn't find sufficient evidence to conclude any impact of growth on employment in LDCs despite some pointing to the positive impact, others point to limitations. They recommended that complementary policies are necessary to ensure economic growth's positive impact on LDC employment. With trade, industry and investment, they only found limited evidence of positive impact on employment from industrial and investment policies and for others, while large bodies of evidence does exist, the exact impact remains contested.[65]

Researchers have also explored the relationship between employment and illicit activities. Using evidence from Africa, a research team found that a program for Liberian ex-fighters reduced work hours on illicit activities. The employment program also reduced interest in mercenary work in nearby wars. The study concludes that while the use of capital inputs or cash payments for peaceful work created a reduction in illicit activities, the impact of training alone is rather low.[66]

Globalization and employment relations

[edit]

The balance of economic efficiency and social equity is the ultimate debate in the field of employment relations.[67] By meeting the needs of the employer; generating profits to establish and maintain economic efficiency; whilst maintaining a balance with the employee and creating social equity that benefits the worker so that he/she can fund and enjoy healthy living; proves to be a continuous revolving issue in westernized societies.[67]

Globalization has affected these issues by creating certain economic factors that disallow or allow various employment issues. Economist Edward Lee (1996) studies the effects of globalization and summarizes the four major points of concern that affect employment relations:

  1. International competition, from the newly industrialized countries, will cause unemployment growth and increased wage disparity for unskilled workers in industrialized countries. Imports from low-wage countries exert pressure on the manufacturing sector in industrialized countries and foreign direct investment (FDI) is attracted away from the industrialized nations, towards low-waged countries.[67]
  2. Economic liberalization will result in unemployment and wage inequality in developing countries. This happens as job losses in uncompetitive industries outstrip job opportunities in new industries.
  3. Workers will be forced to accept worsening wages and conditions, as a global labor market results in a “race to the bottom”. Increased international competition creates a pressure to reduce the wages and conditions of workers.[67]
  4. Globalization reduces the autonomy of the nation state. Capital is increasingly mobile and the ability of the state to regulate economic activity is reduced.

What also results from Lee's (1996) findings is that in industrialized countries an average of almost 70 per cent of workers are employed in the service sector, most of which consists of non-tradable activities. As a result, workers are forced to become more skilled and develop sought after trades, or find other means of survival. Ultimately this is a result of changes and trends of employment, an evolving workforce, and globalization that is represented by a more skilled and increasing highly diverse labor force, that are growing in non standard forms of employment (Markey, R. et al. 2006).[67]

Alternatives

[edit]

Subcultures

[edit]

Various youth subcultures have been associated with not working, such as the hippie subculture in the 1960s and 1970s (which endorsed the idea of "dropping out" of society) and the punk subculture.

Post-secondary education

[edit]

One of the alternatives to work is engaging in post-secondary education at a college, university or professional school. One of the major costs of obtaining a post-secondary education is the opportunity cost of forgone wages due to not working. At times when jobs are hard to find, such as during recessions, unemployed individuals may decide to get post-secondary education, because there is less of an opportunity cost.

Social assistance

[edit]

In some countries, individuals who are not working can receive social assistance support (e.g., welfare or food stamps) to enable them to rent housing, buy food, repair or replace household goods, maintenance of children and observe social customs that require financial expenditure.

Volunteerism

[edit]

Workers who are not paid wages, such as volunteers who perform tasks for charities, hospitals or not-for-profit organizations, are generally not considered employed. One exception to this is an internship, an employment situation in which the worker receives training or experience (and possibly college credit) as the chief form of compensation.[68]

Indentured servitude and slavery

[edit]

Those who work under obligation for the purpose of fulfilling a debt, such as indentured servants, or as property of the person or entity they work for, such as slaves, do not receive pay for their services and are not considered employed. Some historians[which?] suggest that slavery is older than employment, but both arrangements have existed for all recorded history.[citation needed] Indentured servitude and slavery are not considered compatible with human rights or with democracy.[68]

Self-employment

[edit]
 

Self-employment is the state of working for oneself rather than an employer. Tax authorities will generally view a person as self-employed if the person chooses to be recognised as such or if the person is generating income for which a tax return needs to be filed. In the real world, the critical issue for tax authorities is not whether a person is engaged in business activity (called trading even when referring to the provision of a service) but whether the activity is profitable and therefore potentially taxable. In other words, the trading is likely to be ignored if there is no profit, so occasional and hobby- or enthusiast-based economic activity is generally ignored by tax authorities. Self-employed people are usually classified as a sole proprietor (or sole trader), independent contractor, or as a member of a partnership.

Self-employed people generally find their own work rather than being provided with work by an employer and instead earn income from a profession, a trade, or a business that they operate. In some countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, the authorities are placing more emphasis on clarifying whether an individual is self-employed or engaged in disguised employment, in other words pretending to be in a contractual intra-business relationship to hide what is in fact an employer-employee relationship.

Statistics

[edit]

See also

[edit]

Notes and references

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Dakin, Stephen; Armstrong, J. Scott (1989). "Predicting job performance: A comparison of expert opinion and research findings" (PDF). International Journal of Forecasting. 5 (2): 187–94. doi:10.1016/0169-2070(89)90086-1. S2CID 14567834.
  2. ^ Archer, Richard; Borthwick, Kerry; Travers, Michelle; Ruschena, Leo (2017). WHS: A Management Guide (4th ed.). Cengage Learning Australia. pp. 30–31. ISBN 978-0-17-027079-3. Retrieved 2016-03-30. The most significant definitions are 'person conducting a business or undertaking' (PCBU). 'worker' and 'workplace'. [...] 'PCBU' is a wider ranging term than 'employer', though this will be what most people understand by it.
  3. ^ a b Robert A. Ristau (2010). Intro to Business. Cengage Learning. p. 74. ISBN 978-0-538-74066-1.
  4. ^ a b Bagley, Constance E (2017). The entrepreneur's guide to law and strategy. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-285-42849-9. OCLC 953710378.
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  13. ^ New York Jurisprudence 2d. Vol. 52. West Group. 2009 – via Google Books.
  14. ^ Labor Cases. Vol. 158. Commerce Clearing House. 2009 – via Google Books.
  15. ^ Ellie Kaufman (May 19, 2018). "Met Opera sues former conductor for $5.8 million over sexual misconduct allegations". CNN.
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  17. ^ a b c d Ellerman 1992.
  18. ^ a b c d Ostergaard 1997, p. 133.
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  24. ^ "...vulgar are the means of livelihood of all hired workmen whom we pay for mere manual labour, not for artistic skill; for in their case the very wage they receive is a pledge of their slavery." – De Officiis [1]
  25. ^ "As long as politics is the shadow cast on society by big business, the attenuation of the shadow will not change the substance", in "The Need for a New Party" (1931), Later Works 6, p163
  26. ^ a b Ferguson 1995.
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  32. ^ "Arbeitsrecht". Recht – Schnell Erfasst. 2006. doi:10.1007/3-540-32544-1. ISBN 3-540-32541-7.
  33. ^ Höhl, Rebekka (2017). "Kollegen anstellen: Was beim Arbeitsvertrag zu beachten ist!". Uro-News (in German). 21: 45. doi:10.1007/s00092-017-1358-0.
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  39. ^ Auer, M.; Egglmeier-Schmolke, B. (2009-10-01). "Arbeitnehmerüberlassung aus Deutschland im Bereich des Baugewerbes". Baurechtliche Blätter (in German). 12 (5): 199. doi:10.1007/s00738-009-0718-x. ISSN 1613-7612. S2CID 176538819.
  40. ^ Stieglmeier, Jacqueline (2005), Hök, Götz-Sebastian (ed.), "Internationales Arbeitsrecht", Handbuch des internationalen und ausländischen Baurechts (in German), Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 361–368, doi:10.1007/3-540-27450-2_24, ISBN 978-3-540-27450-6, retrieved 2021-04-11
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  43. ^ Lag om anställningsskydd (1982:80)
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  47. ^ United States v. Latham, 754 F.2d 747, 750 (7th Cir. 1985).
  48. ^ "Termination". United States Department of Labor. Archived from the original on 27 September 2012. Retrieved 27 September 2012.
  49. ^ "Bluenomics". Archived from the original on 2014-11-17.
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  52. ^ "Work-Related Motor Vehicle Crashes: Preventing Injury to Young Drivers" (PDF). NIOSH Publication 2013-152. NIOSH. September 2013.
  53. ^ Joseph Holden, Youth employment programmes – What can be learnt from international experience with youth employment programmes? Economic and private sector professional evidence and applied knowledge services https://partnerplatform.org/?fza26891
  54. ^ Pastore, Francesco (2018-01-23). "Why is youth unemployment so high and different across countries?". IZA World of Labor. doi:10.15185/izawol.420.
  55. ^ Chosewood, L. Casey (May 3, 2011). "When It Comes to Work, How Old Is Too Old?". NIOSH: Workplace Safety and Health. Medscape and NIOSH.
  56. ^ Baert, Stijn (February 20, 2016). "Getting Grey Hairs in the Labour Market: An Alternative Experiment on Age Discrimination". Journal of Economic Psychology. 57: 86–101. doi:10.1016/j.joep.2016.10.002. hdl:10419/114164. S2CID 38265879.
  57. ^ Henderson, Kaitlyn (May 3, 2023). "Where hard work doesn't pay off: An index of US labor policies compared to peer nations". Oxfam. Retrieved February 18, 2024. The US is falling drastically behind similar countries in mandating adequate wages, protections, and rights for millions of workers and their families. The wealthiest country in the world is near the bottom of every dimension of this index.
  58. ^ Rank, Mark Robert (2023). The Poverty Paradox: Understanding Economic Hardship Amid American Prosperity. Oxford University Press. pp. 4, 121. ISBN 978-0190212636. The tendency of our free market economy has been to produce a growing number of jobs that will no longer support a family. In addition, the basic nature of capitalism ensures that unemployment exists at modest levels. Both of these directly result in a shortage of economic opportunities in American society. In addition, the absence of social supports stems from failings at the political and policy levels. The United States has traditionally lacked the political desire to put in place effective policies and programs that would support the economically vulnerable. Structural failing at the economic and political levels have therefore produced a lack of opportunities and supports, resulting in high rates of American poverty.
  59. ^ Desmond, Matthew (2023). Poverty, by America. Crown Publishing Group. p. 62. ISBN 9780593239919.
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  61. ^ Fox, Alan (1974) Beyond Contract: Work, Power and Trust Relations, Farber and Farber.
  62. ^ Budd, John W. and Bhave, Devasheesh (2008) "Values, Ideologies, and Frames of Reference in Industrial Relations," in Sage Handbook of Industrial Relations, Sage.
  63. ^ Befort, Stephen F. and Budd, John W. (2009) Invisible Hands, Invisible Objectives: Bringing Workplace Law and Public Policy Into Focus, Stanford University Press.
  64. ^ Budd, John W. and Bhave, Devasheesh (2010) "The Employment Relationship," in Sage Handbook of Handbook of Human Resource Management, Sage.
  65. ^ a b c Yurendra Basnett and Ritwika Sen, What do empirical studies say about economic growth and job creation in developing countries? Economic and private sector professional evidence and applied knowledge services https://partnerplatform.org/?7ljwndv4
  66. ^ Blattman, Christopher; Annan, Jeannie (2016-02-01). "Can Employment Reduce Lawlessness and Rebellion? A Field Experiment with High-Risk Men in a Fragile State". American Political Science Review. 110 (1): 1–17. doi:10.1017/S0003055415000520. ISSN 0003-0554. S2CID 229170512.
  67. ^ a b c d e Budd, John W. (2004) Employment with a Human Face: Balancing Efficiency, Equity, and Voice, Cornell University Press.
  68. ^ a b Rayasam, Renuka (24 April 2008). "Why Workplace Democracy Can Be Good Business". U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved 16 August 2010.

General bibliography

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